TREND AND LEVELS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN
NIGERIA
BY
Elizabeth I. OLINMAH
ABSTRACT
Women empowerment has become major
factor in economic development and is increasingly at the core of countries’
competitiveness in the global economy. The main objective of this paper is to
ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment in Nigeria by 2015.
Secondary data from Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), Nigeria
Demographic and Education Survey (NDES), and National Population Commission
(NPC) were used. Employment, education and literacy rate were adopted as
measures of women empowerment. An overview of the relationship between women’s
level of education and other background characteristics was carried out. The
results showed that men are more likely than women to have some education. Over
40 percent of men are literate compared to 13 percent of women, which is
similar to the results obtained from variables like occupation, agriculture,
etc. Employment is one source of empowerment for women but unfortunately it is
difficult to measure their employment status because the informal sectors are
not reported. However, the data on hand indicates, for instance, that women and
men currently employed in the North West are 46 and 54 percent respectively.
Also, the employment rate of men and women in urban area are of the ratio 42:37
percent while the employment ratio of men to women in the rural area is 63:58.
The study also hints that employment, education and literacy rate of women are
strong determinants of economic growth and they should not be neglected as the
nation works toward attaining vision 2020 goals.
INTRODUCTION
Western-style education was introduced
in by the missionaries in the mid-nineteenth century. Progress in education was
slow but steady throughout the colonial era until the end of World War II. By
1950 the country had developed a three-tier system of primary, secondary, and
higher education based on the British model of wide participation at the
bottom, sorting into academic and vocational training at the secondary level,
and higher education. Education for the purpose of this study is the act or
process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of
reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually
for mature life. Therefore, educating women is the act or process of
imparting particular knowledge or skills on women.
Knowledge accumulation and application
have become major factors in economic development and are increasingly at the
core of many countries’ competitive advantage in the global economy. For
economic and other social and psychological reasons, most developing countries
are currently witnessing a massive influx of women into workforce.
One sure way of empowering women and
reducing gender inequality in today’s fast changing world, especially in a
developing society like Nigeria and outside the country is by getting more
women educated and employed. Women education is therefore necessary for
developing countries especially to experience higher economic growth, reduce
incidence of poverty, increase average wage, increase share of trade in gross
domestic product, and improve health. This leads to the major objective of this
paper which is to ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment status.
Employment, education and literacy rate were used to measure women empowerment.
A secondary data from various surveys were used. To achieve this objective
which this paper has set for itself, the next section examines the literature
of women population, the third section describes the method to be adopted in
data analysis. In the fourth section, data were analyzed and interpreted. The
paper is summarized, conclusion is drawn and recommendations are made in the
fifth section.
LITERATURE REVIEW:-According to Acha (2009), women empowerment is a measure of sustainable good governance. No proper development planning can be successfully made without the use of proper social and economic planning. This has always remained a challenge and cannot be conquered except the women population, their welfare and contributions are significantly put in place. Aderant, (2002), Annekova (2001), Iheduru (2002), Lewis (2006), Mansor (2005), Peters (2010, 2011) have confirmed that women development is very useful in the areas of revenue allocation, determination of per capital income, the labour force etc.
To foster the above position, there
should be an improvements on women's access to basic economic resources such as
land, labour-saving machines (such as tractors), food processing machines,
financial capital and other agricultural innovations such as improved
seedlings, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers et cetera. To ensure proper
utilization of these facilities, technical services as well as market
information should be made available to women farmers among others; see Ayu
(1991, 1992), Wushish (1993), Arene (1993), Mazrui (1991), Anderson, et. al.
(2008), Bilimoria, & Liang, (2012), Burke, & Major, (2014), Debebe (2011),
Debebe & Reinert (2014), Ely, et. al. (2011), , et. al. (2008), Jarvis, et.
al (2013). It boils down to the need for women to be literate, educated and be
employed in and other countries. The population projection result by Acha
(2014) showed that there is exponential growth in women population and without
commensurate growth in their literacy rates, education attainment and
employment the third millennium development goal will seem a mirage Agbalajobi,
(2010) and Ekundayo & Ama, (2014). This leads to the importance of this
paper which is to ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment status in
Nigeria.
CONTEXT OF WOMEN AND EMPLOYMENT
There are important gendered
differences regarding employment in Nigeria, with women facing specific
barriers to income earning opportunities and employment:
·Women
are much more likely to work as traders or business owners in the informal
sector ere income is less predictable and benefits rare;18.2 million women are
traders or business owners, compared to 14.7 million men.
Women own 42.1% of
micro-enterprises(compared to men who own 57.9%).
Men dominate the agriculture, mining
and quarrying, construction, transportation, communications and real estate
sectors; women dominate the hotel and restaurants sectors.
·Women
are heavily engaged in agriculture; 35% of women and up to 44% of female-headed
households work in agriculture in
Nigeria.
Despite their active engagement in
agriculture, women face challenges around: land ownership, access to farm
technologies, and the gendered division of labour on farms,which keeps
women—especially younger women of reproductive age in home-based, post-harvest
processing roles, whilst older women, and men are able to engage in crop
production and marketing.
·Women
rarely own the land they till ranging from 4% in the North East to 10% in the
South East—overall in Nigeria, men are five times more likely to own land than
women. However there are large geographic differences: the north central zone
(where Kano and Kaduna are located), men are also five times more likely to own
land, but in the south-south (where Rivers is located), men are less than three
times more likely to own land than women.
·Nationally,
in the public sector, women fill less than 30% of positions, and 17% of senior
positions. Within the formal sector, women face fewer
opportunities and lower pay.
Nationally, women earn half that of
their male peers (even when the men have lower qualifications), and the gap is
even greater in the north.
·In
northern Nigeria, manager’s risk appearing immoral by hiring female employees and
social norms prevent women from working in mixed-gender facilities—especially
in the industrial and service sectors.
·Women
have relatively low access to formal credit and other financial services, which
limits their ability to start enterprises.
·In
line with global evidence on women’s care work burden, women and girls in
Nigeria are
responsible for most of the unpaid,
reproductive work at home, which tends to be undervalued by both men and women.
CONTEXT OF DISABILITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT
People with disabilities (PWD) face
particular discrimination and barriers to employment in Nigeria, where there
are strong social stigma associated with disability. In general, people with
disabilities are considered ‘good for nothing’ and viewed as objects of
charity.
Disability is often seen as a taboo
and beliefs are sometimes held that people with disabilities. are at times
connected with evil spirits Poverty and disability together create a vicious
circle of deep social exclusion for the disabled. However, there is little
understanding about the real situation of PWD in Nigeria including in rural
areas.
Women with disabilities face double marginalization,
both in terms of their sex and their disabilities and live a life of low
self-esteem, suffering discrimination in all aspects of their lives, are it in
seeking employment, in schools, churches, mosques, on buses, in the offices or
their homes. They are at greater risk of sickness, injury, neglect or negligent
treatment, maltreatment or exploitation. Women and girls with disabilities are
particularly vulnerable to abuse and are more likely to be victims of violence,
rape or sexual abuse. There are a range of forms of disability, including to do
with mobility, vision, hearing, learning, mental health, or even ‘invisible’
disabilities, that are not immediately observable to others. It is important to
note that disability is a social construct, and that it is society’s
‘attitudinal and physical barriers’ that reinforce the physical disability.
Some disabilities, such as obstetric fistula, which are widespread among women
from the Northern Nigeria, are particularly stigmatizing.
In terms of evidence, there is very
limited information on the gender dimensions of disability and youth employment
in Nigeria. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are
approximately million disabled people in Nigeria, or 1 in 10 people have
disabilities in Nigeria. The few studies that do exist on these dimensions of
disability in Nigeria are state-
specific, but do shed some light on
issues facing people with disability in Nigeria:
·At
least half of PWD youth in Kogi State have no education. The most common
occupation is ‘begging’ (at 16% of young persons with disabilities), and very
few benefit from health or other support services.
·A
2013 study in Jos (Plateau State) found limited public support for microcredit
programmes targeting people with
disability, due to either a sense that these people might self-select out of
these programmes as they might have the necessary confidence to participate, or
because community or programme implementers’ own biases that programmes should
target the ‘fittest’ might miss out these populations.
This raises serious questions about
the power of norms and taboos, even among development workers themselves.
However, more research is needed to fully understand this.
Banfield et al(2014) recommend that
youth employment programmes specifically include marginalized groups, such as
those with disabilities, in order to mitigate grievances around exclusion that
could lead to further violent conflict. This study takes a disability lens to
explore how such programmes are reaching, targeting and working for young
women, including those with disabilities.
In all three states, the vast
majority of married women run their own small business, typically involving the
buying and selling of food stuff or selling low value-added food and craft
products. Such small businesses are
seen as being particularly suitable for married women as such work can be fit
around
domestic duties and looking after
small children. Married women reported that their income
earning improved following their
marriage, as they became involved in small business.
‘A married woman can only do
activities that would not conflict with her matrimonial
home, activities like indoor
tailoring, petty trading and soap making'(married woman,
age 20yrs, 3 children, Kaduna)‘Most
married women here sell soup ingredients like tomatoes,
pepper, things that have to do with
cooking. They give their children these things to hawk for
them’ (widow, age, 30yrs, 10
children, Kano).
Restrictions on
women’s economic assets and capabilities Restrictions on women’s economic
assets and capabilities:-
Lack of access to financial services
is seen by the young women as the most significant
challenge holding back their income
earning potential in terms of small business. None of the
young women participants had ever
received a loan or had a bank account.
However, some women expressed a fear
of becoming indebted by borrowing money.
Furthermore, a lack of education was
acknowledged as a major factor limiting women’s economic opportunities. This is
especially true for young women with disabilities, who nationally have much
lower rates of educational attainment than their able bodied peers.
Within the formal sector, women
reported that discrimination towards women exists.
Furthermore, women also had internalized
beliefs about which jobs cannot be done by women. 'If I have the opportunity I would like [to
increase income earning opportunities]
but the issue of finance is a major
setback'(married woman, age 34yrs, 8 children, Kaduna)
‘If you want to get loan from the
bank you much be prepared to offer them collateral and I don’t have it, I don’t
even
work’ (married woman, age 25yrs, 2
children, Rivers).
Cultural and
religious restrictions on women’s economic activities
Many married women in Kaduna and
Kano face cultural
restrictions, which severely limit
their movement, and a
s a
consequence most economic activity
occurs within the home
compound. Some women get around this
restriction as their
children sell items for them outside
of the home. Married
women in these states face an
additional restriction of needing
permission fro
m their husbands to engage in
particular income
earning activities. However, whilst
married women’s husband’s
role can be restrictive, their
support is often crucial, and
welcomed by young women, to enable
them to undertake their
small business activities.
Husbands often provide the financial
means for small business, providing
much need start up capital to purchase equipment and goods. They may
also provide more practical support,
sourcing goods outside of the home.
Because of such cultural norms and
cu
stomary practices,
FGD participants in Kaduna and Kano
expressed a common
belief that mixed
-
sex environments are unsuitable work
places for women. This may severely
affect opportunities to
work in formal environments, but
also work within the
informal econ
omy as women are restricted to
buying and
selling to and from other women.
Single women in all three states
also face cultural
restrictions and risk being
ostracised or marked as a ‘bad
woman’ for being seen to be doing
certain types of work
(including
working in a hotel or restaurant),
or simply for
being outside alone. Furthermore,
single young women
from Rivers state described facing
sexual harassment,
particularly in formal professions
such as companies,
restaurants and the public sector.
'If I have the opportunity I would
like
[to
increase income earning opp
ortunities]
but the issue of finance is a major
setback'
(married woman, age 34yrs, 8
ch
ildren, Kaduna)
‘If you want to get loan from the
bank
you much be prepared to offer them
collateral and I don’t have it, I
don’t even
work’
(married woman, a
ge 25yrs,
2
children, Rivers)
‘I have worked with a man who used
to harass
me, at first I was not afraid but
later he came
and removed all his clothes except
the boxers
although he had asked me out and I
had said
no....he did eve
rything to woo me and I decided
to resign’
(single woman, age 27yrs, Rivers)
‘There are some companies if you
want to work
with them they will tell you to come
and sleep
with them before you are allowed to
work with
them especially their managers,
there
is this
manager that said I should be going
out with
him before I can work’
(single woman, age
18yrs, Rivers)
Aspirations
The study also explored young
women’s aspirations as an
important compo
nent of economic empowerment, but
also to
see how well programmes match young
women’s career
aspirations.
The majority of young women had high
aspirations
mostly related to their current
trading activities within the
informal sector, though in some
cases r
elated to formal
professions
.
‘I want to be a major marketer and
distributor of raw food like bags of
rice,
beans and maize’
(Single woman, age 28yrs,
Kaduna)
‘What I want
to do is to sell the omo
(washing detergent) and soap that am
selling now on wholesale basis.
Instead of
buying 2 cartons, 1 will start
buying 10
-
12
cartons’
(Widow, age 30yrs, 10 children,
Kano)
‘I have so many aspirations. I want
to own a
supermarket,
engage in fashion designing
and do government work (single
woman,
age 26 yrs, Rivers).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The aim of this article is to
explore the extent of work government need to do through trend and
levels of women employment and empowerment programmes that women can
benefit from by reaching out to them through their local government,
individually, through NGO’s and making a good plan for both young and old women
with a particular focus on the most prominent federal level programmes. The
following overarching research
questions informed the study:
1.
To what extent do government youth
employment and empowerment programmes successfully target and reach both old
and young women.
2.
To what extent are governments provide
employment for both old and young women and empowering them with different
programmes that they will benefit from.
3.
To what extent does government make
provision for both old and young women employment and empowerment programmes that
will reflect market needs and opportunities (both employment markets and
products and services markets).
4.
What are the factors that limit
participation in both old and young women employment and empowerment programmes
for them.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING WOMEN’S AND GIRLS’
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
The study uses a framework for
understanding women’s economic empowerment. At the
Centre of this framework are three
overlapping areas of economic empowerment—each
necessary, but insufficient on its
own: Economic assets and capabilities; Social assets and
capabilities; Agency and power. Our
framework also pays attention to the broader enabling
environment, composed of her
community’s formal and informal institutions, social norms,
and her family and community
members’ individual attitudes and behaviours. This enabling
environment interacts with her
individual capabilities, and can reinforce or hinder gains in her
individual assets, capabilities and
agency.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Employment Status by Background
Characteristics
Table 1. Percentage Distribution of Women and Men by Employment Status According to Background Characteristic
|
Employment is one source of
empowerment for women, given that it enables them exercise control over their
own income and by extension their lives. Table 1 shows significant difference in employment of men and
women who reside in the urban areas (75-60 percent and 83-58 percent
respectively). Looking at it from the perspective of the numbers not employed
one sees for example that unemployment rate for women between the ages of 45-49
is 5.8 percent while that of men is 0.3 percent.
Even employment rates of men that are
not educated are higher than those of women, that is, 97.3: 56.8.
The four plots in Figure 1 depict the pictorial aspect of the background
characteristics for age-specific rate and education by sex in Table 1. It shows that forty percent of women have no education
and only 8.5 percent had higher education. The different age cohorts 15-19 and
45-49 increase from 29 percent to 64 percent respectively. It also shows the
total percentage distribution of women respondents’ age specific by highest
level of women educational attainment.
Table 2. Employment According to Age/Sex
SUMMARY AND FINDINGS
This study from the outset indicated
that economic planning will be difficult without the knowledge of women
literacy, education and employment status as these are strong factors of
population change. Since women population data are the major elements of economic
planning, it is necessary to note that any error, has the potential of
frustrating the economic plan. Therefore, the knowledge of population details
such as literacy rate, education and employment of women goes a long way in
enhancing economic planning, women empowerment and subsequent development it
engenders. The results show that there is disparity between women and men
education according to household economic status as in the poorest households,
40 percent of men are literate compared to 13 percent of women. The result is
similar to the results obtained from variables like occupation, agriculture
sectors, etc.
Employment is one source of
empowerment for women but unfortunately it is difficult to measure employment
status because the informal sectors are not reported. However, the data on hand
indicates, for instance, that women and men currently employed in the area 46
and 54 percent respectively. Apart from comparing the results to enable a good
summary and findings to be made, charts were added. These show clearly that the
number of educated women is low an obvious impediment to development planning.
It is obvious that the men are dominating the office setting as at today in the
of basic indices of human development examined by this study. The tremendous
increase of women in population depicts that the realization of the third
millennium development goal which is women empowerment can hardly be achieved
if nothing is done to improve their literacy rate, educational attainment and
employment rate.
CONCLUSION
Considering the state of the Nigerian
economy its need for development cannot be neglected and since it has been
established that women play a vital role in national development, the role of
women in the Nigerian economy cannot be ignored. In the light of the findings
made, the following conclusion is made.
The study discovered that efficiency
of the women on the development and plan of the Nigeria economy are not yet
felt because there is a big disparity between women and men
with the ratio 1:3 in almost all the
sectors. It is pertinent to note that women constitute a greater part of the
population and they can only be ignored at the peril of the economy. Acha
(2014), population projection result shows that women population will grow exponentially
and without commensurate growth in their literacy rates, education attainment
and employment the vision 2020 development goal seems a mirage.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A role of development cannot be
neglected in any nation so as the role of women in the Nigerian economy cannot
be ignored. In the light of the findings made, the following recommendations
are made:
i Government should allow
women to contribute and participate fully in all aspects of life in Nigeria.
ii Nigeria should increase
the literacy rates, education attainment and employment of women participation
in education.
iii There is need for public
enlightenment campaigns so as to get the women educated about the need for
registration and other related events so that the women will co-operate with
the data collection agencies to give rightful information.
REFERENCES
"Some Facts About Women
Entrepreneurs". Go4Funding. Retrieved
30 May 2012.
AK Yetisen; LR Volpatti;
AF Coskun; S Cho; E Kamrani; H Butt; A Khademhosseini; SH Yun (2015). "Entrepreneurship". Lab Chip. 15
(18): 3638–60. doi:10.1039/c5lc00577a. PMID 26245815.
Scott, S.; Venkatraman,
S. (2000). "The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research".
Academy of Management Review. 25: 217–226. doi:10.5465/amr.2000.2791611.
Brush, C.; et al. (2003).
"Doctoral education in the field of entrepreneurship". Journal of
Management. 29 (3): 309–331. doi:10.1016/s0149-2063(03)00014-x.
S.X. Zhang; J. Cueto
(2015). "The Study of Bias in
Entrepreneurship". Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice: n/a. doi:10.1111/etap.12212.
Black, Ervin L.; Burton,
F. Greg; Wood, David A.; Zimbelman, Aaron F. (August 2010). "Entrepreneurial success:
differing perceptions of entrepreneurs and venture capitalists". The International
Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation. 11 (3): 189–198. doi:10.5367/000000010792217272. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Clifford, Catherine. "Why everyone will have to become an
entrepreneur". entrepreneur.com. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
"Venture Investment - Regional Aggregate
Data". National Venture Capital Association and
PricewaterhouseCoopers. Retrieved April 23, 2016.
"From
Ideas to Independence A Century of Entrepreneurial Women."
Entrepreneurs.nwhm.org. N.p., n.d. Web.
Bostwick,
Heleigh. "History's Top Women Entrepreneurs." LegalZoom: Online Legal
Document Services: LLC, Wills, Incorporation, Divorce & More. N.p., March
2009. Web. 18 Apr. 2014.
"From
Ideas to Independence: A Century of Entrepreneurial Women | National Womens'
History Museum." From Ideas to Independence: A Century of Entrepreneurial
Women | National Womens' History Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2014.
Pandey, Tarkeshwer
(2016). "Women Entrepreneurship
In Business Trends; Challenging Issue For Growth" (PDF). IJRDO-Journal
of Applied Management Science. 1: 18–20.
"GEM Global Entrepreneurship Monitor". GEM Global
Entrepreneurship Monitor. Retrieved 2016-08-12.
Schumpeter (27 August
2011). "The daughter also rises
women are storming emerging-world boardrooms". The Economist.
OECD.
(2015), Entrepreneurship at a Glance
2015, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/entrepreneur_aag-2015-en: 96.
OECD.
(2015), Entrepreneurship at a Glance
2015, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/entrepreneur_aag-2015-en: 92.
Lemmon,
G. (2012). Women entrepreneurs, example not exception [Video]. Available from http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/gayle_tzemach_lemmon_women_entrepreneurs_example_not_exception.html
Jacobs,
S (2012). Can we please change the Conversation. http://www.shebusiness.com/2012/09/can-we-please-change-the-conversation/
Gayathridevi,
C.L., 'Barriers of Women Entrepreneurs: A Study in Bangalore Urban District',
International Journal of Trends in Economics Management & Technology
(IJTEMT), ISSN 2321-5518, Vol. 3 Issue 2, April 2014, pp:24-30.
Brush, C. G. (1992).
"Research on women business owners: Past trends, a new perspective and
future directions". Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice. 16 (4):
5–30.
Carter,
S., Anderson, S., & Shaw, E. 2001. Women's Business Ownership: A Review of
the Academic, Popular and Internet Literature. London, UK: Small Business
Service.
Carter, S.; Rosa, P.
(1998). "The financing of male- and female-owned businesses".
Entrepreneurship and Regional Development. 10: 225–241.
Robb,
Alicia M. and Susan Coleman. Sources of Financing for New Technology Firms: A
Comparison by Gender. Kauffman. (July 2009): http://www.kauffman.org/what-we-do/research/kauffman-firm-survey-series/sources-of-financing-for-new-technology-firms-a-comparison-by-gender
Weisul,
Kimberly. "Will the Next Steve Jobs Be a Woman?" Inc. (October 2015):
73.
Loscocco, K. A.; Leicht,
K. T. (1993). "Gender, work-family linkages, and economic success among
small- business owners". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 55:
875–887. doi:10.2307/352769.
Du Rietz, A.; Henrekson,
M. (2000). "Testing the female underperformance hypothesis". Small
Business Economics. 14 (1): 1–10.
Brüderl, J.; Schussler,
R. (1990). "Organizational Mortality: The liabilities of newness and
adolescence". Administrative Science Quarterly. 35 (3): 530–548. doi:10.2307/2393316.
Cooper, A. C.; Woo, C.;
Dunkelberg, W. (1989). "Entrepreneurship and the initial size of the
firms". Journal of Business Venturing. 4 (5): 317–332. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(89)90004-9.
Cooper, C. A.;
Dunkelberg, W. C. (1987). "Entrepreneurial research: Old questions, new
answers and methodological issues". American Journal of Small Business. 11
(3): 11–23.
Fichman, M.; Levinthal,
D. A. (1991). "Honeymoons and the liability of adolescence: A new
perspective on duration dependence in social and organizational relationships".
Academy of Management Review. 16 (2): 442–468. doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4278962.
unfoundation.org
Schumpeter.
(2011, 08 27). The daughter also rises women are storming emerging-world
boardrooms. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/node/21526872
"Nuria Espallargas er
årets kvinnelige teknologigründer". Teknisk Ukeblad. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
Orser, Barbara; Elliott,
Catherine (2015-03-25). Feminine Capital: Unlocking the Power of Women
Entrepreneurs. Stanford Business Books. p. 214. ISBN 9780804783798.
Barbara J. Orser;
Catherine Elliott; Joanne Leck (2011-11-08). "Feminist attributes and
entrepreneurial identity". Gender in Management: An International
Journal. 26 (8): 561–589. doi:10.1108/17542411111183884. ISSN 1754-2413.
Orser, Barbara, and Joanne Leck. "Physician as
feminist entrepreneur: The gendered nature of venture creation and the Shirley
E. Greenberg Women’s Health Centre." Women entrepreneurs and the global
environment for growth.
Abramo, L.; Valenzuela, M.E. 2005.
“Balance del Progreso Laboral de las Mujeres en América Latina
[Progress on labour force
participation for women in Latin America]”, in Revista Internacional de
Trabajo, Vol. 124, No. 4, pp. 399–430.
Addati, L. 2015. “Extending
maternity protection to all women: Trends, challenges and opportunities”, in
International Social Security Review, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 69–93.
Addati, L.; Cheong, L.T. 2013.
“Meeting the needs of my family too”: Maternity protection and work-family
measures for domestic workers, Domestic Work Policy Brief No. 6, Conditions of
Work and
Employment Programme (Geneva, ILO).
Agüero, J.M.; Marks, M.; Raykar, N. 2011.
Do children reduce their mother’s
earnings? Evidence from developing countries, Indian Statistical Institute
paper. Available at: http://www.isid.ac.in/~pu/
conference/dec_11_conf/Papers/MindyMarks.pdf
[9 Nov. 2015].
Aisenbrey, S.; Evertsson, M.;
Grunow, D. 2009. “Is there a career penalty for mothers’ time out?
A comparison of Germany, Sweden and
the United States”, in Social Forces, Vol. 88, No. 2,
p. 573–605.
Akintola, O. 2008. “Unpaid HIV/AIDS
care in southern Africa: Forms, context, and implications”, in Feminist
Economics, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 117–147.
Alfers, L. 2015. WIEGO child care
initiative literature review (Manchester, WIEGO).
Anker, R. 1998. Gender and jobs: Sex
segregation of occupations in the world(Geneva, ILO).
—.; Chernyshev, I.; Egger, P.;
Mehran, F.; Ritter, J. 2003.
Measuring decent work with
statistical indicators, Working Paper No. 2 (Geneva, ILO).
Antonopoulos, R.; Kim, K. 2011.
Public job creation programs: The
economic benefits of investing in social care. Case studies in South Africa and
the United States, Working Paper No. 671
(Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, Levy
Economics Institute of Bard College).—.; Masterson, T.; Zacharias, A. 2010.
Investing in care: A strategy for
effective and equitable job creation, Working Paper No. 610
(Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, Levy Economics Institute of Bard College).
Asao, Y. 2011. “Overview of
non-regular employment in Japan”, in Non-Regular Employment – Issues and
Challenges Common to the Major Developed Countries – 2011 JILPT Seminar on
Non-Regular Employment, JILPT Report No. 10. Available at:
http://www.jil.go.jp/english/reports/
documents/jilpt-reports/no.10.pdf
[28 Oct. 2015].
Asher, R. 2011. Shattered: Modern
motherhood and the illusion of equality (London, Harkvill Secker).
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2014.
Gender tool kit: Micro, small, and medium-sized enterprise finance and
development (Manila).—. 2015a.
Women in the workforce: An unmet
potential in Asia and the Pacific (Manila).—. 2015b.
Balancing the burden? Desk review of
women’s time poverty and infrastructure in Asia and
the Pacific (Manila).
Banerjee, B. 2014. “Occupational
segregation and gender differentials in earnings in Macedonia”, in IZA Journal
of European Labor Studies, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 1–27.
Barone, C. 2011. “Some things never
change: Gender segregation in higher education across eight nations and three
decades”, in Sociology of Education, Vol. 84, pp. 157–176.
Başlevent, C.; Onaran, Ö. 2003. “Are
married women in Turkey more likely to become added or discouraged workers?” in
Labour, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 439–458.
Behrendt, C.; Woodall, J. 2015.
“Pensions and other social security income transfers”,J. Berg (ed.):
Labour markets, institutions and
inequality (Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar Publishing), p p 2 4 2 – 2 6 2
TREND AND LEVELS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN
NIGERIA
BY
E.I.OLINMAH
ABSTRACT
Women empowerment has become major
factor in economic development and is increasingly at the core of countries’
competitiveness in the global economy. The main objective of this paper is to
ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment in Nigeria by 2015.
Secondary data from Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), Nigeria
Demographic and Education Survey (NDES), and National Population Commission
(NPC) were used. Employment, education and literacy rate were adopted as
measures of women empowerment. An overview of the relationship between women’s
level of education and other background characteristics was carried out. The
results showed that men are more likely than women to have some education. Over
40 percent of men are literate compared to 13 percent of women, which is
similar to the results obtained from variables like occupation, agriculture,
etc. Employment is one source of empowerment for women but unfortunately it is
difficult to measure their employment status because the informal sectors are
not reported. However, the data on hand indicates, for instance, that women and
men currently employed in the North West are 46 and 54 percent respectively.
Also, the employment rate of men and women in urban area are of the ratio 42:37
percent while the employment ratio of men to women in the rural area is 63:58.
The study also hints that employment, education and literacy rate of women are
strong determinants of economic growth and they should not be neglected as the
nation works toward attaining vision 2020 goals.
INTRODUCTION
Western-style education was introduced
in by the missionaries in the mid-nineteenth century. Progress in education was
slow but steady throughout the colonial era until the end of World War II. By
1950 the country had developed a three-tier system of primary, secondary, and
higher education based on the British model of wide participation at the
bottom, sorting into academic and vocational training at the secondary level,
and higher education. Education for the purpose of this study is the act or
process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of
reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually
for mature life. Therefore, educating women is the act or process of
imparting particular knowledge or skills on women.
Knowledge accumulation and application
have become major factors in economic development and are increasingly at the
core of many countries’ competitive advantage in the global economy. For
economic and other social and psychological reasons, most developing countries
are currently witnessing a massive influx of women into workforce.
One sure way of empowering women and
reducing gender inequality in today’s fast changing world, especially in a
developing society like Nigeria and outside the country is by getting more
women educated and employed. Women education is therefore necessary for
developing countries especially to experience higher economic growth, reduce
incidence of poverty, increase average wage, increase share of trade in gross
domestic product, and improve health. This leads to the major objective of this
paper which is to ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment status.
Employment, education and literacy rate were used to measure women empowerment.
A secondary data from various surveys were used. To achieve this objective
which this paper has set for itself, the next section examines the literature
of women population, the third section describes the method to be adopted in
data analysis. In the fourth section, data were analyzed and interpreted. The
paper is summarized, conclusion is drawn and recommendations are made in the
fifth section.
LITERATURE REVIEW:-According to Acha (2009), women empowerment is a measure of sustainable good governance. No proper development planning can be successfully made without the use of proper social and economic planning. This has always remained a challenge and cannot be conquered except the women population, their welfare and contributions are significantly put in place. Aderant, (2002), Annekova (2001), Iheduru (2002), Lewis (2006), Mansor (2005), Peters (2010, 2011) have confirmed that women development is very useful in the areas of revenue allocation, determination of per capital income, the labour force etc.
To foster the above position, there
should be an improvements on women's access to basic economic resources such as
land, labour-saving machines (such as tractors), food processing machines,
financial capital and other agricultural innovations such as improved
seedlings, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers et cetera. To ensure proper
utilization of these facilities, technical services as well as market
information should be made available to women farmers among others; see Ayu
(1991, 1992), Wushish (1993), Arene (1993), Mazrui (1991), Anderson, et. al.
(2008), Bilimoria, & Liang, (2012), Burke, & Major, (2014), Debebe (2011),
Debebe & Reinert (2014), Ely, et. al. (2011), , et. al. (2008), Jarvis, et.
al (2013). It boils down to the need for women to be literate, educated and be
employed in and other countries. The population projection result by Acha
(2014) showed that there is exponential growth in women population and without
commensurate growth in their literacy rates, education attainment and
employment the third millennium development goal will seem a mirage Agbalajobi,
(2010) and Ekundayo & Ama, (2014). This leads to the importance of this
paper which is to ascertain the trend and level of women empowerment status in
Nigeria.
CONTEXT OF WOMEN AND EMPLOYMENT
There are important gendered
differences regarding employment in Nigeria, with women facing specific
barriers to income earning opportunities and employment:
·Women
are much more likely to work as traders or business owners in the informal
sector ere income is less predictable and benefits rare;18.2 million women are
traders or business owners, compared to 14.7 million men.
Women own 42.1% of
micro-enterprises(compared to men who own 57.9%).
Men dominate the agriculture, mining
and quarrying, construction, transportation, communications and real estate
sectors; women dominate the hotel and restaurants sectors.
·Women
are heavily engaged in agriculture; 35% of women and up to 44% of female-headed
households work in agriculture in
Nigeria.
Despite their active engagement in
agriculture, women face challenges around: land ownership, access to farm
technologies, and the gendered division of labour on farms,which keeps
women—especially younger women of reproductive age in home-based, post-harvest
processing roles, whilst older women, and men are able to engage in crop
production and marketing.
·Women
rarely own the land they till ranging from 4% in the North East to 10% in the
South East—overall in Nigeria, men are five times more likely to own land than
women. However there are large geographic differences: the north central zone
(where Kano and Kaduna are located), men are also five times more likely to own
land, but in the south-south (where Rivers is located), men are less than three
times more likely to own land than women.
·Nationally,
in the public sector, women fill less than 30% of positions, and 17% of senior
positions. Within the formal sector, women face fewer
opportunities and lower pay.
Nationally, women earn half that of
their male peers (even when the men have lower qualifications), and the gap is
even greater in the north.
·In
northern Nigeria, manager’s risk appearing immoral by hiring female employees and
social norms prevent women from working in mixed-gender facilities—especially
in the industrial and service sectors.
·Women
have relatively low access to formal credit and other financial services, which
limits their ability to start enterprises.
·In
line with global evidence on women’s care work burden, women and girls in
Nigeria are
responsible for most of the unpaid,
reproductive work at home, which tends to be undervalued by both men and women.
CONTEXT OF DISABILITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT
People with disabilities (PWD) face
particular discrimination and barriers to employment in Nigeria, where there
are strong social stigma associated with disability. In general, people with
disabilities are considered ‘good for nothing’ and viewed as objects of
charity.
Disability is often seen as a taboo
and beliefs are sometimes held that people with disabilities. are at times
connected with evil spirits Poverty and disability together create a vicious
circle of deep social exclusion for the disabled. However, there is little
understanding about the real situation of PWD in Nigeria including in rural
areas.
Women with disabilities face double marginalization,
both in terms of their sex and their disabilities and live a life of low
self-esteem, suffering discrimination in all aspects of their lives, are it in
seeking employment, in schools, churches, mosques, on buses, in the offices or
their homes. They are at greater risk of sickness, injury, neglect or negligent
treatment, maltreatment or exploitation. Women and girls with disabilities are
particularly vulnerable to abuse and are more likely to be victims of violence,
rape or sexual abuse. There are a range of forms of disability, including to do
with mobility, vision, hearing, learning, mental health, or even ‘invisible’
disabilities, that are not immediately observable to others. It is important to
note that disability is a social construct, and that it is society’s
‘attitudinal and physical barriers’ that reinforce the physical disability.
Some disabilities, such as obstetric fistula, which are widespread among women
from the Northern Nigeria, are particularly stigmatizing.
In terms of evidence, there is very
limited information on the gender dimensions of disability and youth employment
in Nigeria. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are
approximately million disabled people in Nigeria, or 1 in 10 people have
disabilities in Nigeria. The few studies that do exist on these dimensions of
disability in Nigeria are state-
specific, but do shed some light on
issues facing people with disability in Nigeria:
·At
least half of PWD youth in Kogi State have no education. The most common
occupation is ‘begging’ (at 16% of young persons with disabilities), and very
few benefit from health or other support services.
·A
2013 study in Jos (Plateau State) found limited public support for microcredit
programmes targeting people with
disability, due to either a sense that these people might self-select out of
these programmes as they might have the necessary confidence to participate, or
because community or programme implementers’ own biases that programmes should
target the ‘fittest’ might miss out these populations.
This raises serious questions about
the power of norms and taboos, even among development workers themselves.
However, more research is needed to fully understand this.
Banfield et al(2014) recommend that
youth employment programmes specifically include marginalized groups, such as
those with disabilities, in order to mitigate grievances around exclusion that
could lead to further violent conflict. This study takes a disability lens to
explore how such programmes are reaching, targeting and working for young
women, including those with disabilities.
In all three states, the vast
majority of married women run their own small business, typically involving the
buying and selling of food stuff or selling low value-added food and craft
products. Such small businesses are
seen as being particularly suitable for married women as such work can be fit
around
domestic duties and looking after
small children. Married women reported that their income
earning improved following their
marriage, as they became involved in small business.
‘A married woman can only do
activities that would not conflict with her matrimonial
home, activities like indoor
tailoring, petty trading and soap making'(married woman,
age 20yrs, 3 children, Kaduna)‘Most
married women here sell soup ingredients like tomatoes,
pepper, things that have to do with
cooking. They give their children these things to hawk for
them’ (widow, age, 30yrs, 10
children, Kano).
Restrictions on
women’s economic assets and capabilities Restrictions on women’s economic
assets and capabilities:-
Lack of access to financial services
is seen by the young women as the most significant
challenge holding back their income
earning potential in terms of small business. None of the
young women participants had ever
received a loan or had a bank account.
However, some women expressed a fear
of becoming indebted by borrowing money.
Furthermore, a lack of education was
acknowledged as a major factor limiting women’s economic opportunities. This is
especially true for young women with disabilities, who nationally have much
lower rates of educational attainment than their able bodied peers.
Within the formal sector, women
reported that discrimination towards women exists.
Furthermore, women also had internalized
beliefs about which jobs cannot be done by women. 'If I have the opportunity I would like [to
increase income earning opportunities]
but the issue of finance is a major
setback'(married woman, age 34yrs, 8 children, Kaduna)
‘If you want to get loan from the
bank you much be prepared to offer them collateral and I don’t have it, I don’t
even
work’ (married woman, age 25yrs, 2
children, Rivers).
Cultural and
religious restrictions on women’s economic activities
Many married women in Kaduna and
Kano face cultural
restrictions, which severely limit
their movement, and a
s a
consequence most economic activity
occurs within the home
compound. Some women get around this
restriction as their
children sell items for them outside
of the home. Married
women in these states face an
additional restriction of needing
permission fro
m their husbands to engage in
particular income
earning activities. However, whilst
married women’s husband’s
role can be restrictive, their
support is often crucial, and
welcomed by young women, to enable
them to undertake their
small business activities.
Husbands often provide the financial
means for small business, providing
much need start up capital to purchase equipment and goods. They may
also provide more practical support,
sourcing goods outside of the home.
Because of such cultural norms and
cu
stomary practices,
FGD participants in Kaduna and Kano
expressed a common
belief that mixed
-
sex environments are unsuitable work
places for women. This may severely
affect opportunities to
work in formal environments, but
also work within the
informal econ
omy as women are restricted to
buying and
selling to and from other women.
Single women in all three states
also face cultural
restrictions and risk being
ostracised or marked as a ‘bad
woman’ for being seen to be doing
certain types of work
(including
working in a hotel or restaurant),
or simply for
being outside alone. Furthermore,
single young women
from Rivers state described facing
sexual harassment,
particularly in formal professions
such as companies,
restaurants and the public sector.
'If I have the opportunity I would
like
[to
increase income earning opp
ortunities]
but the issue of finance is a major
setback'
(married woman, age 34yrs, 8
ch
ildren, Kaduna)
‘If you want to get loan from the
bank
you much be prepared to offer them
collateral and I don’t have it, I
don’t even
work’
(married woman, a
ge 25yrs,
2
children, Rivers)
‘I have worked with a man who used
to harass
me, at first I was not afraid but
later he came
and removed all his clothes except
the boxers
although he had asked me out and I
had said
no....he did eve
rything to woo me and I decided
to resign’
(single woman, age 27yrs, Rivers)
‘There are some companies if you
want to work
with them they will tell you to come
and sleep
with them before you are allowed to
work with
them especially their managers,
there
is this
manager that said I should be going
out with
him before I can work’
(single woman, age
18yrs, Rivers)
Aspirations
The study also explored young
women’s aspirations as an
important compo
nent of economic empowerment, but
also to
see how well programmes match young
women’s career
aspirations.
The majority of young women had high
aspirations
mostly related to their current
trading activities within the
informal sector, though in some
cases r
elated to formal
professions
.
‘I want to be a major marketer and
distributor of raw food like bags of
rice,
beans and maize’
(Single woman, age 28yrs,
Kaduna)
‘What I want
to do is to sell the omo
(washing detergent) and soap that am
selling now on wholesale basis.
Instead of
buying 2 cartons, 1 will start
buying 10
-
12
cartons’
(Widow, age 30yrs, 10 children,
Kano)
‘I have so many aspirations. I want
to own a
supermarket,
engage in fashion designing
and do government work (single
woman,
age 26 yrs, Rivers).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The aim of this article is to
explore the extent of work government need to do through trend and
levels of women employment and empowerment programmes that women can
benefit from by reaching out to them through their local government,
individually, through NGO’s and making a good plan for both young and old women
with a particular focus on the most prominent federal level programmes. The
following overarching research
questions informed the study:
1.
To what extent do government youth
employment and empowerment programmes successfully target and reach both old
and young women.
2.
To what extent are governments provide
employment for both old and young women and empowering them with different
programmes that they will benefit from.
3.
To what extent does government make
provision for both old and young women employment and empowerment programmes that
will reflect market needs and opportunities (both employment markets and
products and services markets).
4.
What are the factors that limit
participation in both old and young women employment and empowerment programmes
for them.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING WOMEN’S AND GIRLS’
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
The study uses a framework for
understanding women’s economic empowerment. At the
Centre of this framework are three
overlapping areas of economic empowerment—each
necessary, but insufficient on its
own: Economic assets and capabilities; Social assets and
capabilities; Agency and power. Our
framework also pays attention to the broader enabling
environment, composed of her
community’s formal and informal institutions, social norms,
and her family and community
members’ individual attitudes and behaviours. This enabling
environment interacts with her
individual capabilities, and can reinforce or hinder gains in her
individual assets, capabilities and
agency.
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Employment Status by Background
Characteristics
Table 1. Percentage Distribution of Women and Men by Employment Status According to Background Characteristic
|
Employment is one source of
empowerment for women, given that it enables them exercise control over their
own income and by extension their lives. Table 1 shows significant difference in employment of men and
women who reside in the urban areas (75-60 percent and 83-58 percent
respectively). Looking at it from the perspective of the numbers not employed
one sees for example that unemployment rate for women between the ages of 45-49
is 5.8 percent while that of men is 0.3 percent.
Even employment rates of men that are
not educated are higher than those of women, that is, 97.3: 56.8.
The four plots in Figure 1 depict the pictorial aspect of the background
characteristics for age-specific rate and education by sex in Table 1. It shows that forty percent of women have no education
and only 8.5 percent had higher education. The different age cohorts 15-19 and
45-49 increase from 29 percent to 64 percent respectively. It also shows the
total percentage distribution of women respondents’ age specific by highest
level of women educational attainment.
Table 2. Employment According to Age/Sex
SUMMARY AND FINDINGS
This study from the outset indicated
that economic planning will be difficult without the knowledge of women
literacy, education and employment status as these are strong factors of
population change. Since women population data are the major elements of economic
planning, it is necessary to note that any error, has the potential of
frustrating the economic plan. Therefore, the knowledge of population details
such as literacy rate, education and employment of women goes a long way in
enhancing economic planning, women empowerment and subsequent development it
engenders. The results show that there is disparity between women and men
education according to household economic status as in the poorest households,
40 percent of men are literate compared to 13 percent of women. The result is
similar to the results obtained from variables like occupation, agriculture
sectors, etc.
Employment is one source of
empowerment for women but unfortunately it is difficult to measure employment
status because the informal sectors are not reported. However, the data on hand
indicates, for instance, that women and men currently employed in the area 46
and 54 percent respectively. Apart from comparing the results to enable a good
summary and findings to be made, charts were added. These show clearly that the
number of educated women is low an obvious impediment to development planning.
It is obvious that the men are dominating the office setting as at today in the
of basic indices of human development examined by this study. The tremendous
increase of women in population depicts that the realization of the third
millennium development goal which is women empowerment can hardly be achieved
if nothing is done to improve their literacy rate, educational attainment and
employment rate.
CONCLUSION
Considering the state of the Nigerian
economy its need for development cannot be neglected and since it has been
established that women play a vital role in national development, the role of
women in the Nigerian economy cannot be ignored. In the light of the findings
made, the following conclusion is made.
The study discovered that efficiency
of the women on the development and plan of the Nigeria economy are not yet
felt because there is a big disparity between women and men
with the ratio 1:3 in almost all the
sectors. It is pertinent to note that women constitute a greater part of the
population and they can only be ignored at the peril of the economy. Acha
(2014), population projection result shows that women population will grow exponentially
and without commensurate growth in their literacy rates, education attainment
and employment the vision 2020 development goal seems a mirage.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A role of development cannot be
neglected in any nation so as the role of women in the Nigerian economy cannot
be ignored. In the light of the findings made, the following recommendations
are made:
i Government should allow
women to contribute and participate fully in all aspects of life in Nigeria.
ii Nigeria should increase
the literacy rates, education attainment and employment of women participation
in education.
iii There is need for public
enlightenment campaigns so as to get the women educated about the need for
registration and other related events so that the women will co-operate with
the data collection agencies to give rightful information.
REFERENCES
"Some Facts About Women
Entrepreneurs". Go4Funding. Retrieved
30 May 2012.
AK Yetisen; LR Volpatti;
AF Coskun; S Cho; E Kamrani; H Butt; A Khademhosseini; SH Yun (2015). "Entrepreneurship". Lab Chip. 15
(18): 3638–60. doi:10.1039/c5lc00577a. PMID 26245815.
Scott, S.; Venkatraman,
S. (2000). "The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research".
Academy of Management Review. 25: 217–226. doi:10.5465/amr.2000.2791611.
Brush, C.; et al. (2003).
"Doctoral education in the field of entrepreneurship". Journal of
Management. 29 (3): 309–331. doi:10.1016/s0149-2063(03)00014-x.
S.X. Zhang; J. Cueto
(2015). "The Study of Bias in
Entrepreneurship". Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice: n/a. doi:10.1111/etap.12212.
Black, Ervin L.; Burton,
F. Greg; Wood, David A.; Zimbelman, Aaron F. (August 2010). "Entrepreneurial success:
differing perceptions of entrepreneurs and venture capitalists". The International
Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation. 11 (3): 189–198. doi:10.5367/000000010792217272. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
Clifford, Catherine. "Why everyone will have to become an
entrepreneur". entrepreneur.com. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
"Venture Investment - Regional Aggregate
Data". National Venture Capital Association and
PricewaterhouseCoopers. Retrieved April 23, 2016.
"From
Ideas to Independence A Century of Entrepreneurial Women."
Entrepreneurs.nwhm.org. N.p., n.d. Web.
Bostwick,
Heleigh. "History's Top Women Entrepreneurs." LegalZoom: Online Legal
Document Services: LLC, Wills, Incorporation, Divorce & More. N.p., March
2009. Web. 18 Apr. 2014.
"From
Ideas to Independence: A Century of Entrepreneurial Women | National Womens'
History Museum." From Ideas to Independence: A Century of Entrepreneurial
Women | National Womens' History Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2014.
Pandey, Tarkeshwer
(2016). "Women Entrepreneurship
In Business Trends; Challenging Issue For Growth" (PDF). IJRDO-Journal
of Applied Management Science. 1: 18–20.
"GEM Global Entrepreneurship Monitor". GEM Global
Entrepreneurship Monitor. Retrieved 2016-08-12.
Schumpeter (27 August
2011). "The daughter also rises
women are storming emerging-world boardrooms". The Economist.
OECD.
(2015), Entrepreneurship at a Glance
2015, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/entrepreneur_aag-2015-en: 96.
OECD.
(2015), Entrepreneurship at a Glance
2015, OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/entrepreneur_aag-2015-en: 92.
Lemmon,
G. (2012). Women entrepreneurs, example not exception [Video]. Available from http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/gayle_tzemach_lemmon_women_entrepreneurs_example_not_exception.html
Jacobs,
S (2012). Can we please change the Conversation. http://www.shebusiness.com/2012/09/can-we-please-change-the-conversation/
Gayathridevi,
C.L., 'Barriers of Women Entrepreneurs: A Study in Bangalore Urban District',
International Journal of Trends in Economics Management & Technology
(IJTEMT), ISSN 2321-5518, Vol. 3 Issue 2, April 2014, pp:24-30.
Brush, C. G. (1992).
"Research on women business owners: Past trends, a new perspective and
future directions". Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice. 16 (4):
5–30.
Carter,
S., Anderson, S., & Shaw, E. 2001. Women's Business Ownership: A Review of
the Academic, Popular and Internet Literature. London, UK: Small Business
Service.
Carter, S.; Rosa, P.
(1998). "The financing of male- and female-owned businesses".
Entrepreneurship and Regional Development. 10: 225–241.
Robb,
Alicia M. and Susan Coleman. Sources of Financing for New Technology Firms: A
Comparison by Gender. Kauffman. (July 2009): http://www.kauffman.org/what-we-do/research/kauffman-firm-survey-series/sources-of-financing-for-new-technology-firms-a-comparison-by-gender
Weisul,
Kimberly. "Will the Next Steve Jobs Be a Woman?" Inc. (October 2015):
73.
Loscocco, K. A.; Leicht,
K. T. (1993). "Gender, work-family linkages, and economic success among
small- business owners". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 55:
875–887. doi:10.2307/352769.
Du Rietz, A.; Henrekson,
M. (2000). "Testing the female underperformance hypothesis". Small
Business Economics. 14 (1): 1–10.
Brüderl, J.; Schussler,
R. (1990). "Organizational Mortality: The liabilities of newness and
adolescence". Administrative Science Quarterly. 35 (3): 530–548. doi:10.2307/2393316.
Cooper, A. C.; Woo, C.;
Dunkelberg, W. (1989). "Entrepreneurship and the initial size of the
firms". Journal of Business Venturing. 4 (5): 317–332. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(89)90004-9.
Cooper, C. A.;
Dunkelberg, W. C. (1987). "Entrepreneurial research: Old questions, new
answers and methodological issues". American Journal of Small Business. 11
(3): 11–23.
Fichman, M.; Levinthal,
D. A. (1991). "Honeymoons and the liability of adolescence: A new
perspective on duration dependence in social and organizational relationships".
Academy of Management Review. 16 (2): 442–468. doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4278962.
unfoundation.org
Schumpeter.
(2011, 08 27). The daughter also rises women are storming emerging-world
boardrooms. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/node/21526872
"Nuria Espallargas er
årets kvinnelige teknologigründer". Teknisk Ukeblad. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
Orser, Barbara; Elliott,
Catherine (2015-03-25). Feminine Capital: Unlocking the Power of Women
Entrepreneurs. Stanford Business Books. p. 214. ISBN 9780804783798.
Barbara J. Orser;
Catherine Elliott; Joanne Leck (2011-11-08). "Feminist attributes and
entrepreneurial identity". Gender in Management: An International
Journal. 26 (8): 561–589. doi:10.1108/17542411111183884. ISSN 1754-2413.
Orser, Barbara, and Joanne Leck. "Physician as
feminist entrepreneur: The gendered nature of venture creation and the Shirley
E. Greenberg Women’s Health Centre." Women entrepreneurs and the global
environment for growth.
Abramo, L.; Valenzuela, M.E. 2005.
“Balance del Progreso Laboral de las Mujeres en América Latina
[Progress on labour force
participation for women in Latin America]”, in Revista Internacional de
Trabajo, Vol. 124, No. 4, pp. 399–430.
Addati, L. 2015. “Extending
maternity protection to all women: Trends, challenges and opportunities”, in
International Social Security Review, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 69–93.
Addati, L.; Cheong, L.T. 2013.
“Meeting the needs of my family too”: Maternity protection and work-family
measures for domestic workers, Domestic Work Policy Brief No. 6, Conditions of
Work and
Employment Programme (Geneva, ILO).
Agüero, J.M.; Marks, M.; Raykar, N. 2011.
Do children reduce their mother’s
earnings? Evidence from developing countries, Indian Statistical Institute
paper. Available at: http://www.isid.ac.in/~pu/
conference/dec_11_conf/Papers/MindyMarks.pdf
[9 Nov. 2015].
Aisenbrey, S.; Evertsson, M.;
Grunow, D. 2009. “Is there a career penalty for mothers’ time out?
A comparison of Germany, Sweden and
the United States”, in Social Forces, Vol. 88, No. 2,
p. 573–605.
Akintola, O. 2008. “Unpaid HIV/AIDS
care in southern Africa: Forms, context, and implications”, in Feminist
Economics, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 117–147.
Alfers, L. 2015. WIEGO child care
initiative literature review (Manchester, WIEGO).
Anker, R. 1998. Gender and jobs: Sex
segregation of occupations in the world(Geneva, ILO).
—.; Chernyshev, I.; Egger, P.;
Mehran, F.; Ritter, J. 2003.
Measuring decent work with
statistical indicators, Working Paper No. 2 (Geneva, ILO).
Antonopoulos, R.; Kim, K. 2011.
Public job creation programs: The
economic benefits of investing in social care. Case studies in South Africa and
the United States, Working Paper No. 671
(Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, Levy
Economics Institute of Bard College).—.; Masterson, T.; Zacharias, A. 2010.
Investing in care: A strategy for
effective and equitable job creation, Working Paper No. 610
(Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, Levy Economics Institute of Bard College).
Asao, Y. 2011. “Overview of
non-regular employment in Japan”, in Non-Regular Employment – Issues and
Challenges Common to the Major Developed Countries – 2011 JILPT Seminar on
Non-Regular Employment, JILPT Report No. 10. Available at:
http://www.jil.go.jp/english/reports/
documents/jilpt-reports/no.10.pdf
[28 Oct. 2015].
Asher, R. 2011. Shattered: Modern
motherhood and the illusion of equality (London, Harkvill Secker).
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2014.
Gender tool kit: Micro, small, and medium-sized enterprise finance and
development (Manila).—. 2015a.
Women in the workforce: An unmet
potential in Asia and the Pacific (Manila).—. 2015b.
Balancing the burden? Desk review of
women’s time poverty and infrastructure in Asia and
the Pacific (Manila).
Banerjee, B. 2014. “Occupational
segregation and gender differentials in earnings in Macedonia”, in IZA Journal
of European Labor Studies, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 1–27.
Barone, C. 2011. “Some things never
change: Gender segregation in higher education across eight nations and three
decades”, in Sociology of Education, Vol. 84, pp. 157–176.
Başlevent, C.; Onaran, Ö. 2003. “Are
married women in Turkey more likely to become added or discouraged workers?” in
Labour, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 439–458.
Behrendt, C.; Woodall, J. 2015.
“Pensions and other social security income transfers”,J. Berg (ed.):
Labour markets, institutions and
inequality (Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar Publishing), p p 2 4 2 – 2 6 2
Comments
Post a Comment